Elsevier

Nutrition

Volume 59, March 2019, Pages 69-76
Nutrition

Applied nutritional investigation
Christian Orthodox fasting in practice: A comparative evaluation between Greek Orthodox general population fasters and Athonian monks

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nut.2018.07.003Get rights and content

Highlights

  • Orthodox fasting (OF) is a periodical vegetarian subset of the Mediterranean diet.

  • We evaluated OF effects in general population fasters (GF) and Athonian monks (AM).

  • AM demonstrated lower BMI, Body Fat Mass and HOMA-IR values compared to GF.

  • The results highlight the unique characteristics of Athonian OF as a health-promoting diet.

  • Limitation of specific vitamins and minerals during OF warrants further investigation.

Abstract

Objectives

Christian Orthodox fasting (COF), a periodical vegetarian subset of the Mediterranean diet, has been proven to exert beneficial effects on human health. Athonian fasting is a pescetarian COF variation, where red meat is strictly restricted throughout the year. Previous studies have examined the COF nutritional synthesis and health effects in general population fasters (GF) and Athonian monks (AM), separately. The aim of this study is to comparatively evaluate the characteristics and effects of this nutritional advocacy between the two populations.

Methods

The study included 43 male GFs (20–45 y of age) and 57 age-matched male AMs following COF. Dietary intake data were collected in both groups during a restrictive (RD) and a nonrestrictive (NRD) day. Nutritional, cardiometabolic, and anthropometric parameters were compared between the two cohorts.

Results

AM presented lower daily total caloric intake for both RD (1362.42 ± 84.52 versus 1575.47 ± 285.96 kcal, P < 0.001) and NRD (1571.55 ± 81.07 versus 2137.80 ± 470.84 kcal, P < 0.001) than GF.They also demonstrated lower body mass index (23.77 ± 3.91 versus 28.92 ± 4.50 kg/m2, P <0.001), body fat mass (14.57 ± 8.98 versus 24.61 ± 11.18 kg, P = 0.001), and homeostatic model assessment for insulin resistance values (0.98 ± 0.72 versus 2.67 ± 2.19 mmol/L, P < .001) than GF. Secondary hyperparathyroidism (parathyroid hormone concentrations: 116.08 ± 49.74 pg/mL), as a result of profound hypovitaminosis D [25(OH)D: 9.27 ± 5.81 ng/mL], was evident in the AM group.

Conclusions

The results of the present study highlight the unique characteristics of Athonian fasting and its value as a health-promoting diet. The effects of limitation of specific vitamins and minerals during fasting warrants further investigation.

Introduction

Previous research [1], [2], [3], [4], has indicated that the Mediterranean diet (MD) is an ideal dietary paradigm for the prevention of cardiovascular and degenerative diseases [5], [6], [7], [8], [9]. Several studies [10], [11], [12], [13], [14] attested emerging roles for a subset of the MD, the Greek Orthodox fasting ritual, which for religious reasons is considered to be deeply integrated in the dietary behavior of the Greek population [11], [12], [13].

Christian Orthodox fasting (COF) is adopted as the predominant, traditional dietary pattern for a large part of the Greek Orthodox population for prolonged periods (from 120 to 180 d) annually [8]. It has been suggested that COF shares the beneficial effects of the typical MD by promoting specific cardioprotective mechanisms, including reduced intake of dietary cholesterol and fatty acids, and optimal effects on plasma lipid concentrations [15]. It typically integrates parameters of dietary restriction of specific macronutrients, given that it suggests abstinence from meat, dairy products, and eggs daily, and from fish and olive oil on specific weekdays, during fasting periods [8]. In addition, most existing data [11], [12], [13], [14], [15], [16] indicate that restricted calorie intake is evident during COF periods, accentuating COF as a unique component of both caloric and dietary restriction regimens, among the other well-investigated religiously motivated dietary models [10], [11].

A considerable number of previous studies [8], [11], [12], [13], [14], [15], [16] have focused on the nutritional aspects of COF as practiced by the general Orthodox population, reporting interesting data on this obscured but still vital subtype of the MD. This dietary pattern, inducted by the Greek Orthodox Church as a way of spiritual prosperity for the faithful [8], was initially followed by the Greek Orthodox monks, comprising the main nutritional model of the monasterial community of Mount Athos. The autonomous monasterial state of Mount Athos located in Halkidiki, northern Greece, is the largest Greek monasterial community and a major center of Eastern Orthodox monasticism [11]. A population of ∼1800 male monks reside in 20 different monasteries, incorporating strict dietary and physical activity daily plans into their religious duties. Athonian COF can be described as a pescetarian variation of the typical COF, meaning that red meat consumption is totally restricted throughout the year, during both fasting and nonfasting periods.

The present study attempted to comparatively evaluate COF, as practiced by two distinct populations: the Orthodox monks in Mount Athos, who strictly adhere to fasting, and a cohort of general population in central northern Greece, who practice fasting rituals from early adulthood as periodical fasters, with a discourse on the similarities and differences in practicing COF between the two cohorts and the comparative evaluation of the nutritional synthesis in each cohort according to recommended dietary intakes suggested by international health organizations in the context of a health-promoting diet.

Section snippets

Study population

Study recruitment included 43 Christian orthodox male adults (group 1), 20 to 45 y of age, residing in the region of Chalkidiki, northern Greece and an age-matched cohort of 57 Orthodox male Athonian monks (AM), from the monasterial community of Mount Athos (group 2). Individuals with ≥6 mo of adherence to COF were included in the study. Individuals with chronic diseases and those receiving medication or vitamin or mineral supplements were excluded. Inclusion and exclusion criteria for the

Results

Demographic and anthropometric population characteristics are shown in Table 1. Participants in the GF group (group 1) adhered to COF periodical patterns from early adulthood (mean duration: 19.2 ± 4.5 y).The monks group adhered to religious fasting continually, since the beginning of their monastic life (mean duration: 13.27 ± 8.9 y). Median BMI and percent of BF values in group 1 were above the optimal range (28.92 ± 4.5 kg/m2 and 26.04 ± 8.18%, respectively). Group 2 demonstrated

Discussion

To our knowledge, this is the first comparative report in the literature of dietary intake, anthropometric, and cardiometabolic markers in two distinct groups of Orthodox fasters—monks and general population. Significant differences in nutritional patterns between RD and NRD were evident between the two groups, in conjunction with a more favorable profile of anthropometric and glucose homeostasis in the AM group compared with the GF group, with the exception of profound hypovitaminosis D.

The

Conclusion

This study offers, for the first time, detailed appraisal of COF, as practiced in Mount Athos, in a comparative evaluation with the typical COF, as practiced by the general Orthodox population. Its results highlight the unique characteristics of Athonian fasting and its value as a health-promoting diet.

We consider that the positive effect of this nutritional model on human homeostasis is facilitated by a variety of valuable mechanisms, extended beyond the benefits of a typical vegetarian diet.

Acknowledgment

The authors acknowledge the “Holy Supervision Council” and the community of monks at Mount Athos for their participation.

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  • Cited by (0)

    S.N.K. conceptualized and designed the study, collected all data, and drafted the first version of the manuscript. S.N.K., T.K., A.P., D.F., D.S., H.M., and K.K. analyzed and interpreted the dietary data. S.N.K., T.K., H.M., P.Z., and D.P.N. interpreted biochemical results. M.K. conducted biochemical analysis of the samples. A.P. and D.F. performed the literature review and the statistical analysis. All authors have read and critically revised the manuscript and approved the final version. The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare.

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