Basic nutritional investigationGinkgo biloba extract alleviates oxidative stress and some neurotransmitters changes induced by aluminum chloride in rats
Graphical abstract
Introduction
Aluminum (Al) is found in combination with oxygen, silicon, fluorine, and other elements in soil, rocks, clay, and gems and comprises about 8% of the Earth's crust [1] and its salts are daily used in our diets, food additives, drinking water, and some beverages. The main sources of ingested Al are found in corn, yellow cheese, processed cheese, baking powder, flour, and cake [2], [3].
Al is also widely employed in medicine such as eye drops, antiperspirants [4], antacids, phosphate binders, aspirins, vaccines, allergic injections [5], and toothpaste [3]. The daily intake of Al has been estimated to be 3.5 to 51.6 mg [6], where 20% of this amount comes from aluminum cooking utensils [7], [8]. Overexposure to Al is inevitable, and its accumulation in human blood and tissues depend on time, duration, route, and form of exposure.
It has been clearly established that Al is a potent neurotoxin [9] and a possible contributing factor in several neurodegenerative disorders including Alzheimer disease [10], [11], dialysis encephalopathy [4], and alternative function of exchange between the blood–brain barriers and peripheral circulation [12]. The increased Al burdens can cause biochemical metabolic disorders which cause metabolic bone diseases via induction of parathyroid dysfunction [13], inhibition of some enzymes such as hexokinase, acid and alkaline phosphatases (ALP), phosphodiesterase and phosphooxydase [14], impairment in glucose utilization, lipid peroxidation, accumulation of free radical mediated cytotoxicity, impact on DNA and RNA gene expression, and altered protein phosphorylation [15], [16]. Conversely, Al can cause lipid peroxidation and decrease in some antioxidant enzymes in plasma and tissues of male rabbits [17] and decrease in acetyl-coenzyme A [18], acetylcholine transferase [19], and acetylcholine esterase [20].
The leaf extract of Ginkgo biloba (EGb 761) has antioxidant and free radical scavenger properties that work by increasing the endogenous antioxidants and inhibiting free radical formation [21], [22]. Ginkgo biloba extract (GbE) is also used in treating cerebral disorders that result from aging and hypoxia [23]. In addition, the psychological and physiological benefits of Ginkgo biloba are based on its primary action of regulating neurotransmitters and exerting neuroprotective effects.
Due to the properties of Ginkgo biloba, it was selected as a subject to investigate the potential capacity of its leaf extract as a protector against the possible toxic effects of AlCl3 on the brain and testis of male rats through the evaluation of some biochemical parameters in serum and through the histologic changes in brain and testis of male rats treated with AlCl3 and/or GbE for 3 mo.
Section snippets
Chemicals
Anhydrous aluminum chloride (AlCl3) was supplied from BDH Laboratory Supplies (BDH, GPR, Safat, Kuwati) and Ginkgo biloba was purchased from Pharo Pharmaceuticals for EMA Pharm Pharmaceuticals (Cairo, Egypt).
Animals
Twenty four adult male albino rats (180–200 g) were used in the present study and obtained from the animal house of the Nuclear Research Center, Atomic Energy Authority, Cairo, Egypt. The rats were kept in plastic cages under normal conditions: temperature was (29 ± 2°C), relative humidity
Biochemical study
Data in Table 1 shows that rats administered AlCl3 revealed a significant increase (P < 0.05) in TBARS in both brain and testis (+33.61% and +47.33%, respectively) and significant decreases (P < 0.05) in SOD, CAT, and GSH in brain tissue (−34.36%, −34.27%, and −56.0%, respectively) and testis tissue (−36.95%, −36.06%, and −47.75%, respectively) as compared to the control group. On the other hand, treatment of rats with GbE + AlCl3 was markedly ameliorated the increase in TBARS and the decrease
Discussion
The present study showed that the ingestion of AlCl3 for 3 mo induced oxidative stress and biochemical alterations because SOD, CAT, and GSH have been decreased in these rats as measured in testis and brain, whereas the level of TBARS was increased. The brain is known to contain high concentrations of polyunsaturated fatty acids that are highly susceptible to lipid peroxidation [36], [37]. This result is more related to the ability of Al to enhance the production of reactive oxygen
Conclusions
The present results showed that the brain is particularly susceptible to aluminum toxic effects, which significantly enhance neuronal lipoperoxidative damage, decrease Mg, Cu, and Zn, and increase Fe with concomitant alterations in the antioxidant defense status that may be responsible for the rise in the cell load as a result of oxidative stress, which affects the levels of neurotransmitters. On the other hand, administration of Ginkgo biloba extract with aluminum chloride improved some
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The authors acknowledge the expert assistance rendered by Dr. K.A. Ahmed, Professor of Veterinary Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Cairo University, Egypt, for performing the histologic examinations and interpretations and also thank Dr. N.I. Hazzaa, Professor of Radiobiology, MERRCAC, Egypt. The authors declare no conflict of interest.